namespace tf {

/** @page LimitTheMaximumConcurrency Limit the Maximum Concurrency

This chapters discusses how to limit the concurrency or the maximum
number of workers in your %Taskflow applications.

@tableofcontents

@section DefineASemaphore Define a Semaphore

%Taskflow provides a mechanism, tf::Semaphore, for you to limit 
the maximum concurrency in a section of tasks.
You can let a task acquire/release one or multiple semaphores before/after 
executing its work.
A task can acquire and release a semaphore, 
or just acquire or just release it. 
A tf::Semaphore object starts with an initial value.
As long as that value is above 0, tasks can acquire the semaphore and do
their work.
If the value is 0 or less, a task trying to acquire the semaphore will not run
but goes to a waiting list of that semaphore.
When the semaphore is released by another task, 
it reschedules all tasks on that waiting list.

@code{.cpp}
tf::Executor executor(8);   // create an executor of 8 workers
tf::Taskflow taskflow;

tf::Semaphore semaphore(1); // create a semaphore with initial value of 1

std::vector<tf::Task> tasks {
  taskflow.emplace([](){ std::cout << "A" << std::endl; }),
  taskflow.emplace([](){ std::cout << "B" << std::endl; }),
  taskflow.emplace([](){ std::cout << "C" << std::endl; }),
  taskflow.emplace([](){ std::cout << "D" << std::endl; }),
  taskflow.emplace([](){ std::cout << "E" << std::endl; })
};

for(auto & task : tasks) {  // each task acquires and release the semaphore
  task.acquire(semaphore);
  task.release(semaphore);
}

executor.run(taskflow).wait();
@endcode

@dotfile images/semaphore1.dot

The above example creates five tasks with no dependencies between them.
Under normal circumstances, the five tasks would be executed concurrently.
However, this example has a semaphore with initial value of 1,
and all tasks need to acquire that semaphore before running and release that
semaphore after they are done.
This organization limits the number of concurrently running tasks to only one.
One possible output is shown below:

@code{.bash}
# the output is a sequential chain of five tasks
A
B
E
D
C
@endcode

@attention
It is your responsibility to ensure the semaphore stays alive during the 
execution of tasks that acquire and release it. 
The executor and taskflow do not manage lifetime of any semaphores.

For the same example above, we can limit the semaphore concurrency to 
another value different from 1, say 3, 
which will limit only three workers to run the five tasks,
@c A, @c B, @c C, @c D, and @c E.

@code{.cpp}
tf::Executor executor(8);   // create an executor of 8 workers
tf::Taskflow taskflow;

tf::Semaphore semaphore(3); // create a semaphore with initial value of 3

std::vector<tf::Task> tasks {
  taskflow.emplace([](){ std::cout << "A" << std::endl; }),
  taskflow.emplace([](){ std::cout << "B" << std::endl; }),
  taskflow.emplace([](){ std::cout << "C" << std::endl; }),
  taskflow.emplace([](){ std::cout << "D" << std::endl; }),
  taskflow.emplace([](){ std::cout << "E" << std::endl; })
};

for(auto & task : tasks) {  // each task acquires and release the semaphore
  task.acquire(semaphore);
  task.release(semaphore);
}

executor.run(taskflow).wait();
@endcode

@code{.bash}
# One possible output: A, B, and C run concurrently, D and E run concurrently
ABC
ED
@endcode


Semaphores are powerful for limiting the maximum concurrency of not only 
a section of tasks but also different sections of tasks.
Specifically, you can have one task acquire a semaphore and have another
task release that semaphore to impose concurrency on subgraphs of tasks.
The following example serializes the execution of five pairs of tasks
using a semaphore rather than explicit dependencies.

@code{.cpp}
tf::Executor executor(4);  // creates an executor of 4 workers
tf::Taskflow taskflow;
tf::Semaphore semaphore(1);

int N = 5;
int counter = 0;  // non-atomic integer counter

for(int i=0; i<N; i++) {
  tf::Task f = taskflow.emplace([&](){ counter++; })
                       .name("from-"s + std::to_string(i));
  tf::Task t = taskflow.emplace([&](){ counter++; })
                       .name("to-"s + std::to_string(i));
  f.precede(t);
  f.acquire(semaphore);
  t.release(semaphore);
}

executor.run(taskflow).wait();

assert(counter == 2*N);
@endcode

@dotfile images/semaphore2.dot

Without semaphores, each pair of tasks, e.g., <tt>from-0 -> to-0</tt>,
will run independently and concurrently.
However, the program forces each @c from task to acquire the semaphore 
before running its work and not to release it until its paired @c to task 
is done.
This constraint forces each pair of tasks to run sequentially,
while the order of which pair runs first is up to the scheduler.


@section UseSemaphoresAcrossDifferentTasks Use Semaphores Across Different Tasks

You can use semaphores to limit the concurrency across different sections 
of taskflow graphs.
When you submit multiple taskflows to an executor, the executor view them 
as a bag of dependent tasks.
It does not matter which task in which taskflow graph acquires or releases 
a semaphore.

@code{.cpp}
tf::Executor executor(8);   // create an executor of 8 workers
tf::Taskflow taskflow1;
tf::Taskflow taskflow2;

tf::Semaphore semaphore(1); // create a semaphore with initial value of 1

taskflow1.emplace([](){std::cout << "task in taskflow1"; })
         .acquire(semaphore)
         .release(semaphore);

taskflow2.emplace([](){std::cout << "task in taskflow2"; })
         .acquire(semaphore)
         .release(semaphore);

executor.run(taskflow1);
executor.run(taskflow2);
executor.wait_for_all();
@endcode

The above examples creates one task from each taskflow and submits
the two taskflows to the executor. 
Again, under normal circumstances, the two tasks can run concurrently, 
but the semaphore restricts one worker to run the two task sequentially 
in arbitrary order.

@section DefineAConflictGraph Define a Conflict Graph

One important application of tf::Semaphore is <i>conflict-aware scheduling</i>
using a conflict graph.
A conflict graph is a @em undirected graph where each vertex represents a task and 
each edge represents a conflict between a pair of tasks.
When a task conflicts with another task, they cannot run together.
Consider the conflict graph below,
task @c A conflicts with task @c B and task @c C (and vice versa), meaning that
@c A cannot run together with @c B and @c C whereas 
@c B and @c C can run together.

@dotfile images/semaphore3.dot

We can create one semaphore of one concurrency for each edge in the conflict graph and 
let the two tasks of that edge acquire the semaphore.
This organization forces the two tasks to not run concurrently.

@code{.cpp}
tf::Executor executor;
tf::Taskflow taskflow;

tf::Semaphore conflict_AB(1);
tf::Semaphore conflict_AC(1);

tf::Task A = taskflow.emplace([](){ std::cout << "A" << std::endl; });
tf::Task B = taskflow.emplace([](){ std::cout << "B" << std::endl; });
tf::Task C = taskflow.emplace([](){ std::cout << "C" << std::endl; });

// describe the conflict between A and B
A.acquire(conflict_AB).release(conflict_AB);
B.acquire(conflict_AB).release(conflict_AB);

// describe the conflict between A and C
A.acquire(conflict_AC).release(conflict_AC);
C.acquire(conflict_AC).release(conflict_AC);

executor.run(taskflow).wait();
@endcode

@code{.bash}
# One possible output: B and C run concurrently after A
A
BC
@endcode

@attention
A task can acquire and release multiple semaphores. 
When the executor runs a task, it will try to acquire all semaphores needed by that task.
When the executor finishes that task, it will release all acquired semaphores by that task.

@section ResetASemaphore Reset a Semaphore

You can reset a semaphore to its initial state using tf::Semaphore::reset(), 
or set a new maximum value with tf::Semaphore::reset(size_t new_max_value).
The method tf::Semaphore::value() allows you to query the current value of the semaphore, 
which represents the number of available acquisitions.

@code{.cpp}
tf::Semaphore semaphore(4);
assert(semaphore.value() == 4 && semaphore.max_value() == 4);

// reset the semaphore to a new value
semaphore.reset(11);
assert(semaphore.value() == 11 && semaphore.max_value() == 11);
@endcode

@attention
When a semaphore is acquired more times than its maximum value,
an exception will be thrown.

@section UnderstandTheLimitationOfSemaphores Understand the Limitation of Semaphores

Currently, tf::Semaphore has limited support for exception handling and taskflow cancellation. 
If a task throws an exception or the taskflow is canceled, 
subsequent acquire and release operations on the semaphore may result in undefined behavior. 
To ensure correct behavior, you should call tf::Semaphore::reset before reusing the semaphore 
in the next run.
For instance, in the code below, when task `B` throws an exception, the executor
will cancel the execution of the taskflow. 
That is, tasks `C` and `D` will not run, and thus no task will release the 
acquired semaphore.
To resolve this situation, we must reset the semaphore to a clean state
for the next run.

@code{.cpp}
tf::Executor executor;
tf::Taskflow taskflow;
tf::Semaphore semaphore(1);

tf::Task A = taskflow.emplace([](){});
tf::Task B = taskflow.emplace([](){ throw std::runtime_error("exception"); });
tf::Task C = taskflow.emplace([](){});
tf::Task D = taskflow.emplace([](){});
A.precede(B);
B.precede(C);
C.precede(D);

A.acquire(semaphore);
D.release(semaphore);

// current semaphore has a value of 1
assert(semaphore.value() == 1);

// when B throws the exception, D will not run and thus semaphore is not released
try {
  executor.run(taskflow).get();
}
catch(std::runtime_error& e) {
  std::cout << e.what() << std::endl;
}

// since A acquired the semaphore, its value is 0
assert(semaphore.value() == 0);

// reset the semaphore to a clean state before running the taskflow again
semaphore.reset();
assert(semaphore.value() == 1);

executor.run(taskflow).get();
@endcode


*/

}


